REGIONAL SPECIES AND COMMUNITY CHARACTERIZATIONS
Legally Protected Species
Federally Listed Endangered and Threatened Species
There are 25 federally listed species presently occurring in the New York Bight study area, including 15 endangered species and 10 threatened species (Table 1). There are three additional federally listed species (dwarf wedge mussel, small whorled pogonia, and American chaffseed) that occur outside of the New York Bight watershed but within habitat complexes delineated by the New York Bight study. A brief discussion of the New York Bight status, distribution, and recovery goals for each of these species is presented below. The distribution of federally listed species in the study area is shown in Figure 4.
Section 2 of the federal Endangered Species Act of 1973 (Act) provides for the conservation of ecosystems depended upon by threatened and endangered fish, wildlife, and plant species listed under the Act. The Act authorizes the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened; prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species; provides authority to acquire land for the conservation of listed species; authorizes establishing cooperative agreements and grants to states that establish and maintain active and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; authorizes assessing civil and criminal penalties for violating the Act or regulations; and authorizes paying rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the Act or any regulation issued thereunder. Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act requires federal agencies to insure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by them is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of listed species or modify their critical habitat. It also requires federal agencies to utilize their authorities to further the Act's purposes.
Information requests, including the up-to-date status of federally listed and candidate species, should be referred to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Field Offices in each state or to the Northeast Regional Office (Region 5). These addresses and phone numbers are provided in Appendix III.
Dwarf wedge mussel (Alasmidonta heterdon)
The dwarf wedge mussel was listed as an endangered species in March 1990, and a recovery plan was prepared in 1993 by Region 5 of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This freshwater mussel is restricted to Atlantic slope drainages from North Carolina to New Brunswick, Canada. Historically the species was known in 70 locations in 11 states and one province. Recent extensive surveys of historical and potential sites have uncovered only 20 extant populations. The largest extant population in the world occurs in the lower Neversink River in New York, just outside the New York Bight drainage, but within the Shawangunk - Kittatinny Ridge significant habitat complex. The 80,000 mussel population in the Neversink far outnumbers all other extant populations. Historically within the Bight watershed, mussels were found in the Hackensack River system in Bergen County, New Jersey.
Mussels are sessile organisms generally associated with lotic (moving) water, and occupy a wide range of habitats. They are good indicators of ecosystem health, since they are dependent upon specific physical habitat, water quality, and a population of host fish necessary to complete their life cycle. There are 297 native freshwater mussel species in North America in the families Margaritiferidae and Unionidae. The populations of only 70 species (23.6%) are considered stable; most of the rest are in more precarious states. The primary reasons for mussel declines include habitat destruction from dams; channel modifications; siltation caused by poor development, agricultural, and forestry practices; point and nonpoint source chemical pollution; commercial harvest; and introduction of non-indigenous mollusks.
Northeastern beach tiger beetle (Cincindela dorsalis dorsalis)
The northeastern beach tiger beetle was listed as threatened in August 1990, and a species recovery plan was published in 1994. The subspecies C. d. dorsalis had a coastal distribution from Cape Cod south to central New Jersey, and along both shores of the Chesapeake Bay. There were about 24 historical occurrences on the barrier beaches of the New York Bight, but the beetle apparently has been extirpated from the beaches of the Bight. This extirpation has mainly been attributed to destruction and disturbance of natural beach habitat from shoreline development, beach stabilization structures, and high recreational use, combined with high natural larval mortality. Survival of larvae is significantly lower on beaches where human activity is concentrated and generally absent from beaches with moderate to high off-road vehicle use. Oil spills are also a major potential threat to the beetles. The recovery plan calls for the re-establishment of the beetle throughout its range on the Atlantic Coast, including Long Island and several locations from Sandy Hook to Island Beach, New Jersey. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in cooperation with the National Park Service, is presently experimenting with re-establishing this species on the northern tip of Sandy Hook in Gateway National Recreation Area. Other potential sites for reintroduction in the New York Bight area include the Holgate Unit of E.B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge and Island Beach State Park in New Jersey, and the Fire Island National Seashore on Long Island. Northeastern beach tiger beetles are predators on amphipods, flies, or other beach arthropods, and scavengers on dead fish, crabs, and amphipods. They emerge in mid to late June after a one to two-year larval development stage. Mating and egg-laying occur from late June through August. Larvae dig vertical burrows in the upper intertidal to high drift zone, while adults tend to be concentrated in wider sections of the beach.
Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis)
The Karner blue butterfly was listed as endangered in December 1992; a recovery plan is now being drafted. The Karner blue is known to occur in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Indiana, New York, New Hampshire, and Ontario, Canada. In the New York Bight watershed, it occurs at the northern end of the study region at several sites within the Hudson Valley sandplain, including sites within and near the Albany Pine Bush Preserve. The only known food plant for the larvae of this species is the wild blue lupine (Lupinus perennis). Karner blues prefer very dry, sandy, pitch pine-scrub oak barrens and grassy openings within pine barrens. Active habitat management, including prescribed burning, is necessary to maintain and increase populations within the Pine Bush and on other sites in the Hudson Valley sandplain by protecting sites, maintaining wild blue lupine stands, and providing dispersal corridors.
Shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum)
The shortnose sturgeon, a long-lived, late-maturing fish, was listed as endangered on the original U.S. Endangered Species List in 1967. Although considered to be anadromous, shortnose sturgeon migrations to saltwater typically are limited to the estuaries of their natal rivers. In the southern portion of their range, sturgeon may use the marine environment with more frequency. Shortnose sturgeon are distributed from the Saint John River in New Brunswick, Canada, south to the St. John River in Florida. In the Bight study area, sturgeon regularly occur in the Hudson River from Manhattan upriver to the federal dam at Troy, New York.
Sturgeon suffered serious declines due to their commercial value as an important domestic source of caviar. Loss of essential habitat due to pollution and physical barriers such as dams is also a factor contributing to declines and limiting recovery. Along with the closely related Atlantic sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus), shortnose sturgeon occupy the large coastal rivers and estuaries almost exclusively during the first five years of their lives. Maturing late in life, adult shortnose sturgeon start their spawning migration in the early spring and spawn in April and May in a freshwater region of the Hudson below Troy. Newly-hatched sturgeon larvae are bottom-oriented fish that are believed to be swept down river by currents to the rich estuarine areas of the river. Juvenile Atlantic and shortnose sturgeon overlap in the Hudson River estuary and may compete for space or food, although Atlantic sturgeon appear to prefer the deeper, mesohaline (brackish water with a salinity of 5 to 18 parts per thousand) region of the estuary, while the shortnose sturgeon juveniles are more abundant in the fresh and brackish sections of the Hudson River. The diet of the shortnose sturgeon includes insects, crustaceans, mollusks, and annelids. Atlantic sturgeon are known to make oceanic migrations of considerable distances, both north and south, but this does not appear to be the case with shortnose sturgeon. It is believed that shortnose populations are semi-disjunct throughout their range, since they are not consistently found along the coast.
Loggerhead sea turtle (Carretta carretta)
The loggerhead sea turtle, listed as threatened in July 1978, is the most abundant sea turtle occurring in U.S. waters. Adult and subadult loggerheads have reddish-brown carapaces and dull brown to yellowish plastrons (lower shells). Loggerheads are omnivorous and eat a variety of benthic and pelagic food items, including bivalve mollusks, sponges, gastropods, squids, crabs, shrimp, and a variety of sea grass species. They grow to a mean carapace length of 92 centimeters (3 feet) and a body weight of about 113 kilograms (250 pounds).
In the spring and fall, loggerheads are concentrated south of New Jersey in the shelf/slope waters. The loggerhead's summer distribution is much like that of the Atlantic (Kemp's) ridley in the Bight; loggerheads arrive as early as May, and juveniles are found in the bays and Long Island Sound. There is a second group of individuals that is oceanic and is found along the south shore of Long Island up to 64.3 kilometers (40 miles) or farther offshore. This latter group comprises a greater diversity of age classes, including adults, which appear to return to this area over a number of years. Their northern winter range is limited to water temperatures above 10°C (50°F). Nesting in the U.S. occurs in April through August, from Florida to Virginia.
Major threats to loggerhead survival are those that occur throughout the marine environment: collisions with vessels and damage from their propellers; entanglement at sea with ropes, nets, and cables deployed in a variety of activities; ingestion of marine debris, especially plastic bags, plastic and styrofoam pieces, tar balls, and balloons; and commercial fisheries interactions. In addition, egg collecting, raccoon predation on nests and eggs, and a wide variety of human activities directly threaten loggerheads or indirectly alter or destroy their habitat.
Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas)
In 1978, under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the Atlantic green sea turtle was listed as threatened, except for the breeding populations in Florida and on the Pacific coast of Mexico, which were listed as endangered. The green turtle is also listed on Appendix I of CITES. The green turtle is the largest hard-shelled sea turtle, commonly reaching 1 meter (3.2 feet) in carapace length and 150 kilograms (330.7 pounds) in weight. Characteristics useful for identification are a small, rounded head, smooth carapace, and four pairs of costal scutes (lateral scales). Adult green turtles are benthic, or bottom, feeders, relying on pastures of seagrasses and algae for their herbivorous diet. It is assumed that young post-hatchlings and pelagic-stage juveniles are omnivorous, since they are found over coral reefs and rocky bottoms. Most of the green turtle's feeding habitat occupies relatively shallow, protected waters, whereas its nesting habitat is on high energy, southern, sand beaches.
In the New York Bight, green sea turtle distribution is related to submerged aquatic vegetation such as Ulva and Codium spp. Green turtles are found in the Bight from June through October. Adult green turtles have been observed in the Bight; however, there is a wide range in the size of individuals, suggesting that there is not a clearly defined age class migration into the area. It is estimated that at least 100 individuals use the region each year for foraging. In addition to the usual threats to the southern nesting habitats that are common to all marine turtles, marine environmental threats seem particularly germane to this species. These include oil and gas exploration, development and transportation, dredging, marina and dock development, pollution, seagrass bed degradation, fisheries activities such as trawl, purse seine, hook and line, gill net, pound net, longline, and trap fisheries, collisions with boats, power plant entrapment, underwater explosions, offshore artificial lighting, entanglement, ingestion of marine debris, poaching, predation, and diseases and parasites.
Leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
The leatherback sea turtle is considered endangered throughout its global range. It was listed as endangered under the authority of the Endangered Species Act in 1970 and was included in Appendix I of CITES, ratified by the U.S. in 1974. It is the world's largest living sea turtle and is so distinctive that it belongs to its own separate family, Dermochelyidae. The slightly flexible carapace (shell) that gives the leatherback its name is unique among sea turtles. It is composed primarily of tough, oil-saturated, connective tissue, raised into seven prominent longitudinal ridges that taper to a blunt posterior point. Leatherbacks are water column feeders, feeding predominantly on a variety of soft-bodied invertebrates such as pelagic medusae (jellyfish), siphonophores, and salpae in the temperate and boreal latitudes. Although they are found in coastal waters, leatherbacks are pelagic creatures of the open ocean capable of diving to great depths. Leatherbacks engage in lengthy migrations from their foraging to nesting areas, presumably to optimize both opportunities. Consequently, they venture into colder water, as far north as Laborador, more than any other marine reptile does.
The leatherback is a common species in the New York Bight from May through November. Adult and large juveniles are both found feeding in the nearcoastal areas, but rarely in the bays or lagoons. Rough estimates indicate that 500 to 800 animals use the Bight each year. Threats to this species in the study area are those that occur throughout the marine environment: collisions with vessels and injuries from their propellers; entanglement at sea with ropes, nets, and cables deployed in a variety of activities; ingestion of marine debris, especially plastic bags, plastic and styrofoam pieces, tar balls, and balloons; and commercial fisheries interactions. Threats in the nesting environment in the tropical latitudes include hatchling mortality due to natural causes and a variety of injurious anthropogenic activities. These include poaching of eggs and nesting beach interference such as beach armoring, beach erosion, beach lighting, beach cleaning, recreational beach equipment, driving on beaches, beach nourishment, and increased human presence.
Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretomochelys imbricata)
The hawksbill sea turtle was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 1970 and listed under CITES in 1974. There are few records to indicate that this species is anything but a rare or anomalous visitor to the New York Bight area. Hawksbill sea turtles are found throughout the Caribbean, Bahamas, Florida Keys, and southwestern Gulf of Mexico. They are not reported frequently in shallow coastal systems exhibiting high turbidity and soft bottoms, such as the eastern U.S. coast north of Cape Canaveral, Florida. Illegal slaughter of hawksbills for international trade in their products continues to threaten populations all over the world.
Atlantic (Kemp's) ridley sea turtle (Lepidochelys kempii)
Listed as endangered throughout its range in 1970 by the U.S. and protected in Mexico since the 1960's, the Atlantic ridley was historically a very abundant sea turtle in the Gulf of Mexico fewer than fifty years ago. The population crash that occurred between 1947 and the 1970's may have been the result of intensive over harvesting of eggs and mortality to juvenile and adults in the trawl fisheries. The Atlantic ridley and its congener, the olive ridley (L. olivacea), are the smallest of all extant sea turtles. Adults generally weigh less than 45 kilograms (99.2 pounds), with a carapace length around 65 centimeters (25.5 inches). Key factors in identifying Atlantic ridley are a carapace almost as wide as long, five vertebral scutes, five pairs of costal scutes, and generally twelve pairs of marginals.
The Atlantic ridley is the second most abundant endangered sea turtle to be found in the New York Bight study area. Individuals, usually two- to five-year-old juveniles, are commonly found in the eastern part of the Bight from June to October; it is believed that there are a number of significant foraging areas critically important to the large numbers of Atlantic ridleys observed there. These key forage areas include Long Island Sound, Block Island Sound, Gardiners Bay, and especially the Peconic Estuary. Atlantic ridleys are found to a lesser extent in Jamaica Bay, Lower New York Bay, and Great South Bay. In the Bight, ridleys feed primarily on green crab (Carcinas maenas) and spider crabs (Libinia spp.), consuming large quantities and doubling their weight in under five months. A significant number of the surviving population of 100 to 300 individuals use the Bight annually in their development cycle; the region therefore is of considerable importance to the survival and recovery of the species.
Peregrine falcon (Falco perigrinus)
The peregrine falcon was listed as endangered in 1970; its original recovery plan for the eastern population was published in 1979, with updates in 1987 and 1991. The native breeding population of the peregrine falcon in the eastern United States was extirpated by the mid-1960s, primarily due to acute and chronic toxic effects of organochlorine pesticides, principally DDT. A new population was established through the release of captive-produced offspring from parents of various subspecific and geographic origins; this population does not represent the original genome of the species in the northeastern U.S. The present population in eastern North America is estimated at about 120 territorial pairs. In the New York Bight watershed there are about 21 nesting pairs, or about one-sixth of the entire eastern peregrine population, including 10 pairs nesting on towers and buildings along the New Jersey coast and 11 pairs nesting on bridges and buildings in the metropolitan New York City area. This re-established population is now at a point where it is thought to be able to sustain itself, and the emphasis of future recovery efforts will be on habitat protection. Protecting existing nest sites and potential habitat to accommodate increasing population levels is of critical importance. In the New York Bight watershed, there are several historical nest sites that should be protected as potential habitat, including sites in the Palisades and the Shawangunk Ridge and sites in the upper Hudson watershed in the Adirondacks. Past attempts to establish nesting peregrines in the Shawangunks failed, probably due to predation by great horned owls (Bubo virginianus). Other threats include direct human disturbance of birds, habitat degradation or loss, shooting of birds, and localized environmental contamination.
The New York Bight also provides important migratory and wintering habitat for peregrines that nest in Canada. Two principal fall migration corridors for the arctic (Falco peregrinus tundrius) and taiga (F. p. anatum) peregrines pass through the New York Bight study area. One migration route is from the St. Lawrence River valley into the Hudson and Connecticut River drainages, across to the Appalachians and south to Florida and beyond. The other migration route is along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod south to Florida and beyond. The barrier beaches along the Long Island and New Jersey coasts are particularly important migratory stopover habitat. On average over 130 peregrines are counted at the Fire Island hawk watch and an average of over 750 peregrines are counted at the Cape May hawk watch every year. Historically, important wintering areas occurred along the shores of Long Island, New Jersey, New York City, and the lower Hudson River valley. Maintaining open space, particularly barrier islands, is essential for these migrating and wintering populations.
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
The bald eagle was listed in 1978 as a threatened species in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Oregon, and Washington, and as endangered in the remaining contiguous United States. A northern states recovery plan was completed in 1983. Due to the bald eagle's recovery, its status has recently (1995) been down listed to threatened in all of the contiguous United States. Bald eagles nest and winter in the New York Bight watershed. There are five known nesting areas in the watershed: along the Hudson River at the Stockport Creek marshes, at the Ashokan Reservoir in the Catskills, near the Round Valley Reservoir in northern New Jersey, along the Mullica River in the Pinelands, and just inland (west) of the Brigantine Unit of the E.B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge. There are several nesting areas just outside the Bight watershed in the Catskills and in the upper Hudson watershed north of the study area. Important wintering sites include reservoir spillways in the Catskills and the narrow, deep section of the mid-Hudson River estuary (river mile 44-56), which is especially critical when other areas are frozen. Significant nesting (at least five pairs) and wintering in New Jersey occurs along the Delaware River outside the Bight watershed, and wintering birds are regularly seen in the Mullica and Great Egg Harbor estuaries. Given the dramatic recovery of this species and the proximity of additional nesting and wintering areas, it is likely that the bald eagle population in the New York Bight will increase in the near future. It is imperative that known and potential nesting and wintering habitat be identified and protected from destruction and disturbance. Disturbance at roosting and nesting sites may affect survival and reproductive success. Impacts to the fisheries populations upon which the eagles depend may also have adverse effects on the eagles. Additional studies of the extent and effects on eagles of contaminants, especially PCBs in the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, may be warranted.
Piping plover (Charadrius melodus)
The Atlantic Coast population of the piping plover was listed as threatened in January 1986, at the same time that the northern Great Plains population was listed as threatened and the Great Lakes population was listed as endangered; a recovery plan for the Atlantic coast population was completed in 1988 and a technical/agency draft of a revised recovery plan for the Atlantic coast population was completed in 1995. The breeding range of the Atlantic coast population of piping plover extends from South Carolina north to the Maritime Provinces of Canada.
Piping plovers are small, arctic shorebirds that return to their breeding areas in the New York Bight watershed in late March to early April, where they nest on sand and cobble coastal beaches above the high tide line, often in association with least terns (Sterna antillarum). Plovers feed on a variety of invertebrates in the intertidal zone, wrack line, sand and mudflats, ephemeral pools, and open vegetation. After chicks fledge between early July and the end of August, plovers gather on neutral feeding grounds and migrate south along the coast to wintering grounds from North Carolina to Mexico and into the Bahamas and West Indies. At present, the population is increasing slowly, with about 1,000 nesting pairs of piping plovers in the U.S. Atlantic coast population, one-quarter of which (about 289 pairs in 1995) occurs on the beaches of the New York Bight. The average productivity of the U.S. population is about 1.56 chicks fledged per nesting pair; in New York and New Jersey, average productivity is about 1.25 chicks fledged per nesting pair. Threats include human disturbance from pedestrian and vehicular traffic, predation by gulls, crows, foxes, feral dogs and cats, and other animals, habitat loss or degradation, oil spills, and beach stabilization that prevents natural coastal processes, such as overwash and breaching, that create and maintain favorable piping plover nesting habitat. Recent studies have indicated that the suitability of feeding and brood-rearing habitat may be important in nest site selection, and that storm-maintained habitats such as open vegetation, ephemeral pools, breaches, and overwash fans are especially important as brood-rearing habitat. Conservation and management actions include using predator exclosures, reducing disturbance from pedestrians and off-road vehicles through fencing and public outreach, and allowing for storm-maintained, open, sandy habitat.
Roseate tern (Sterna dougalli)
The northeastern population of the roseate tern was listed as endangered in November 1987 and a recovery plan published in 1989. As of 1995, the northeastern population is considered relatively stable, with about 3,400 nesting pairs distributed from New York to Maine and in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. The largest threat to this species is the reduction of nesting sites; 85% of the birds nest on just two islands in the Northeast (Great Gull Island, New York and Bird Island, Massachusetts). The range-wide reduction in nesting sites has, in part, been attributed to the increase in herring (Larus argentatus) and great black-backed gulls (L. marinus). On average, the breeding colonies in the New York Bight watershed on the south shore of Long Island have accounted for about 5% of the total nesting pairs, spread out over four or five colonies. Nesting sites on the south shore of Long Island include Cedar Beach (Jones Beach East) in Babylon, Lanes Island and the Warner Islands in Southampton, East and West Islands in Brookhaven and, recently, Breezy Point in New York City. The Cedar Beach colony, the fourth largest breeding colony in recent times, declined from 100 pairs in 1987 to just 19 pairs in 1995. Subsequent to the 1995 survey, there was complete predation, possibly by American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), and abandonment of the tern colony at Cedar Beach. The vulnerability of this and other individual sites highlights the importance of protecting a network of existing and potential nesting sites for roseate terns and other colonial nesting birds. These New York Bight watershed sites are important to the recovery goal of increasing the species nesting population to 5,000 pairs distributed in at least six large colonies and, eventually, to 8,500 pairs nesting in at least 30 sites. Roseates historically nested in New Jersey, but there has been no nesting in recent years except for single adults pairing with common terns at three sites. Enhancement of existing nesting sites and restoration of historical nesting sites will likely be necessary for full recovery of roseate terns.
The roseate tern is exclusively coastal, breeding on small islands or occasionally on barrier beaches. In the Northeast, roseate terns arrive between late April and early May, nesting in association with common tern (Sterna hirundo) colonies. Roseate terns feed on small schooling marine fish, primarily American sandlance (Ammodytes americanus), but also on Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), juvenile mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix). Roseate terns are known to fly up to 20 kilometers (12.5 miles) from the breeding colony to favored foraging areas. In late August and September, adults and juveniles disperse to staging areas on barrier beaches between Long Island and Cape Cod before migrating south directly across the Atlantic to wintering grounds off northern South America.
Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis)
The Indiana bat was listed as endangered in May 1972. The bat is distributed throughout the midwestern and eastern United States, with concentration areas in Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, and Missouri. A large percentage of the wintering population hibernates in just a few caves and mines in the Midwest and East. There are three known winter hibernacula in the New York Bight watershed: one small colony (about 25 bats) in a mine in the New Jersey portion of the New York - New Jersey Highlands; one mid-sized colony (about 300 bats) in a limestone cave in the Helderberg escarpment; and one large colony in a mine in the mid-Hudson River valley. This last colony supported over 5,000 bats during 1990, making it one of the largest hibernacula in the country. There are likely additional Indiana bat hibernacula in the New York Bight watershed, especially in the New York - New Jersey Highlands where there are numerous abandoned mines, most of which have not been surveyed because access to them is limited or prohibited. Breeding colonies for this species appear to be small and widely scattered. Female and juvenile Indiana bats seem to prefer riparian corridors during the summer, while males appear to prefer floodplain ridges and hillside forests, though the full extent of their summer habitat is not well known. Breeding Indiana bats were recently found in a forested area in the Picatinny Arsenal in the New York - New Jersey Highlands. Threats to Indiana bat include commercialization of roosting caves, destruction by vandals, disturbance by spelunkers and, possibly, insecticide poisoning. Recovery efforts are focusing on protecting the wintering hibernacula of this species. Protecting the known sites for this species in the Bight watershed through placement of gates and other methods, as well as protecting forested riparian habitat for summer foraging, is important for the long-term viability of this species.
Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus)
The blue whale, listed as endangered since 1978, is the largest living mammal in the world. Blue whales are rarely sighted in the New York Bight region. Usually occurring singly or in pairs, individuals are difficult to identify at a distance, especially when associated with groups of finback whales. Blue whales are considered shallow feeders, feeding on krill (euphausids) distributed in the ocean's surface (100 meters [328 feet]) layers. Okeanos Foundation has documented fewer than a dozen sightings in the New York Bight in the past 15 years. The sightings have occurred at least 40.2 kilometers (25 miles) south of Montauk Point in waters deeper than 30 meters (98.4 feet).
Finback whale (Balaenoptera physalus)
The finback whale is the most abundant and widely distributed baleen whale along the Mid- and North Atlantic coasts. Finback whales were listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in 1970. Present in the northern waters of the Atlantic Ocean year-round, they are found during spring and summer in one of five principal use areas: Lower Bay of Fundy, Jeffrey's Ledge, and Stellwagen Bank in the Gulf of Maine, and Great South Channel and Cox's Ledge off the coast of Massachusetts. These principal use areas are rich in food species such as calanoid copepods and euphausids, as well as schooling fish (Atlantic herring, Atlantic mackerel, sand lance, butterfish, Atlantic menhaden, and alewife) and invertebrate species (longfin and northern shortfin squid). Feeding aggregations usually involve 20 or more individuals, and groups of over 200 finback whales are not uncommon. In the fall through early winter, finback whales are more abundant in the New York Bight area as they move offshore along the continental shelf near the 200 meter (656.2 foot) contour. Finback whales breed in the winter, mostly in temperate waters. Mid-winter through early spring, they are found within a mile of the shoreline along the eastern portions of Long Island and the New York Bight Apex, apparently feeding on the high densities of herring and mackerel that occur there at this time of year. Winter aggregations involve small groups of 3 to 4 individuals. Calves are observed throughout the year, with newborn calves appearing in early July in the New York Bight region; there is some speculation that calving may be occurring in this area.
The finback whale is one of the fastest of the large whales, and is able to reach burst speeds of over 37 kilometers/hour (20 knots/hour). They were not an important commercial species until the comparatively recent development of fast catcher boats and the depletion of the blue whale stock. Today they are subject to stresses in the marine environment caused by anthropogenic sources, including habitat degradation from coastal development and pollution, competition for resources, entrapment and entanglement in fishing gear, and collision with ships.
Sei whale (Balaenoptera borealis)
The sei whale has been listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act since 1970. Little is known regarding the distribution and migrations of this large whale. They are generally sighted north of 40°N latitude, centering their distribution on the perimeter of Georges Bank east of the New York Bight between the 15 to 300-meter (50 to 1,000-foot) contours north along the continental shelf edge to the Gulf of Maine basin. Sei whales feed primarily on copepods, euphausids, and a variety of small schooling fishes. Sei whales are infrequently sighted in the New York Bight; however, they have been found occasionally in association with finback whale aggregations, and sightings in the New York Bight are principally in the months of July and August. Sei whales primary use the New York Bight for foraging; it is unknown if any other activities take place here.
Northern right whale (Eubalaena glacialis)
The northern right whale is the world's most endangered large whale, and was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in June 1970. Worldwide, there are about 600 individuals remaining, and current estimates indicate the occurrence of only 300 to 350 individuals in the North Atlantic Ocean. The low population numbers signal that this large whale species is most in danger of extinction in the near future. Possible reasons for non-recovery include effects of ship traffic, marine pollution, coastal development in the North Atlantic calving grounds, entanglement with fishing gear, collision with vessels, and competition for food with other copepod-eating whales and fish.
Right whales are sighted regularly every year in the New York Bight. Most sightings are in the months of March through June as the animals move through the region on their migration route north. Occasionally several have been observed feeding in association with large blooms of calanoid copepods. Based on Okeanos Foundation data, the New York Bight waters function mainly as a migration pathway, with sightings of cow/calf pairs and solitary individuals occasionally feeding on their journey to summering grounds in Cape Cod Bay. It is believed that during their southward migration, right whales move offshore after they pass Cape Cod, reappearing somewhere off the Georgia and Florida coasts as they complete their annual migration cycle.
Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)
The humpback whale is distinguished from other members of the Balaenopteridae family by its extraordinarily long flippers, distinct tail flukes, robust body, a dorsal fin, knobs (tuberosities) on the head, and utilization of long, complex, and repetitive songs (vocalizations) during courtship. The humpback whale is distributed worldwide, but is less common in Arctic waters. This species was classified endangered when the U.S. Endangered Species Act was passed in 1973 and remains so today. Humpbacks are numerically the fourth most depleted large cetacean worldwide; they were heavily exploited by commercial whalers until the middle of this century. All humpbacks feed in a summer range that is located over the continental shelf at latitudes ranging from about 40 to 75° north. Many of its summer habitats are traditional, although there are within-season movements, presumably to find or follow concentrations of prey. Important prey for the humpbacks in the New York Bight area include sandlance, herring, and Atlantic mackerel. These whales undertake long-distance migrations between summer feeding and winter breeding areas. Most humpback whales return to traditional winter locations at the lower latitudes, usually between 10 and 35° north.
Commercial whale hunting has had a significant historical impact on humpback whales; commercial hunting ceased in 1955 in the North Atlantic and in all oceans by 1966. Today these whales meet with a number of other threats, including entrapment and entanglement in fishing gear, collision with ships, acoustic disturbance, habitat degradation from both pollution and coastal development, and competition for resources with humans. The humpback whale is regularly found in the New York Bight; however, its abundance fluctuates widely. Humpbacks are often found in shallow water and have been observed within Long Island Sound, Block Island Sound, and Gardiner's Bay for periods exceeding a week. This is one of the few species that has been observed frequently along western Long Island, inclusive of the New York Harbor and the surrounding shore. Concentration of prey items, particularly sandlance, seems to attract these humpbacks, regardless of location. The greatest abundance of humpback whales in the New York Bight occurs as they feed on small schooling fish concentrations from June through September, and again in December and January. Based on Okeanos Foundation surveys, there are never more than 50 to 100 animals at any one time in the New York Bight.
Sperm whale (Physeter catodon)
The sperm whale was listed as endangered under the 1973 Endangered Species Act. It is distributed widely throughout the deep waters of the North Atlantic, somewhat concentrated along the 1,000-meter (3,281-foot) contour and almost always in waters greater than 200 meters (656.2 feet). Sperm whales are deep-water feeders that rely on squid (Illex spp.) as their mainstay prey; however, they will also eat a variety of deep-water fishes, including sharks, rays, anglers, lumpfish, and rockfish.
The deeper waters of the New York Bight seem to be important to the various life stages of the sperm whale; a great many sightings of individuals have been reported in the Bight, and the area has an abundance of squid, a favorite forage item. Mating occurs in the spring during migration north through the Bight waters. Observations and sightings indicate that the distribution of young whales, both calves and juveniles, resembles that of the adults; cows and calves are regularly sighted in the Bight.
The New York Bight offers an anomalous situation for this deep-water species; the Okeanos Foundation reports that they regularly see sperm whales in one location south of Montauk Point, Long Island, in less than 18 meters (59 feet) of water from late May through June and again in October. No direct observations of feeding have been made, and it is still a mystery as to what the whales are doing there, although their natural history would suggest feeding.
Knieskern's beaked-rush (Rhynchospora knieskernii)
Knieskern's beaked-rush was listed as a threatened species in July 1991 and a recovery plan published in 1993. R. knieskernii is a member of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), and is found on relatively bare, continually-moist to wet substrates that include various combinations of sand, clay, bog ore, gravel, and peat. Fire may play an important role in maintaining suitable habitat for R. knieskernii. This species also occurs in early-successional wet habitats, such as borrow pits created by human disturbances to the landscape. Knieskern's beaked-rush is endemic to the Pinelands region of southern New Jersey, with a few questionable historical records from Delaware. There is a total of 34 extant populations in a five-county area in the Pinelands, including 27 in the New York Bight watershed. Threats to the survival of Knieskern's beaked-rush include development, succession, competition with other plant species, disturbance by off-road vehicles, trash dumping, and, possibly, roadside grading. At sites that are naturally maintained in an early successional stage, any disturbance or change in the hydrology or successional stage could be detrimental. At human-disturbed sites, some periodic disturbance may be necessary to maintain the early successional stage. Maintenance and recovery of this species will require protecting all the naturally-occurring populations and several of the occurrences on disturbed sites. Twenty-eight of the 34 known extant populations occur on private land.
Swamp pink (Helonias bullata)
Swamp pink was listed as a threatened species in September 1988, and a recovery plan was published by Region 5 of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1991. This species historically occurred from New York to Virginia, though it no longer occurs in New York State. New Jersey supports over half of the total world population for this species, which is locally common in the Coastal Plain in southern New Jersey. Swamp pink is a member of the lily family (Liliaceae) and occurs in a variety of groundwater-influenced wetlands that are perennially saturated, but not inundated. In New Jersey, swamp pink generally occurs in swamps dominated by red maple (Acer rubrum) or Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyperis thyoides). Although the majority of sites in New Jersey are in the Delaware River watershed, several extant sites occur in the New York Bight watershed in the Pinelands and in the Piedmont Province. Threats to the survival of swamp pink include direct loss of forested wetland habitat due to filling, clearing, and draining. However, indirect loss of this species' habitat also results from sedimentation from off-site construction activities, flooding and erosion due to increased runoff from upstream sites, degradation of water quality, and subtle changes in groundwater and surface hydrology due to adjacent developments. Recovery of swamp pink depends on habitat protection achieved through a combination of regulatory protection and conservation of sites plus surrounding and upstream areas.
Small whorled pogonia (Isotria medeoloides)
The small whorled pogonia was listed as endangered in October 1982, and a recovery plan was completed in 1985 by Region 5 of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Small whorled pogonia is widely distributed from Maine to Georgia, with outliers in the Midwest and Canada. There are over 100 known sites, mostly in three concentration areas, the southern Blue Ridge mountains, northern Virginia, and New England. Although there are no known extant occurrences of this species in the New York Bight watershed, there are seven known historical occurrences: two in western Long Island and five scattered in and around the New Jersey portion of the New York - New Jersey Highlands. Two extant occurrences exist just outside the watershed boundary on the western side of the Kittatinny Ridge system in northwestern New Jersey. Although this species occurred historically in the New York Bight watershed, nearby colonies in the Kittatinny Mountains and in New England suggest that this species may yet be found within the watershed in appropriate habitat on the Shawangunk - Kittatinny Ridge, New York - New Jersey Highlands, or Taconic Highlands areas. The small whorled pogonia is a member of the orchid (Orchidaceae) family and occurs in a variety of habitats, including mixed deciduous or mixed deciduous/coniferous forests, second or third-growth successional stages with sparse to moderate ground cover, and highly acidic, nutrient-poor soils. Light availability may be a limiting factor for this species. The major threats to the small whorled pogonia are habitat destruction, collection, recreational use of habitat, and herbivory. Because small whorled pogonia occurs in uplands, there are few state or federal regulatory means of protecting this species on private lands. Appropriate habitat in the New York Bight and adjacent areas should continue to be surveyed and populations protected through acquisition, easements, or other means.
Seabeach amaranth (Amaranthus pumilis)
Seabeach amaranth, an annual plant species in the amaranth family (Amaranthaceae), was listed as threatened in April 1993 and a draft recovery plan completed in 1995. Seabeach amaranth is endemic to Atlantic coast barrier islands; historically, the species ranged from Massachusetts south to South Carolina but now only occurs in New York, North Carolina, and South Carolina. Within the New York Bight watershed, seabeach amaranth occurs at about 20 sites along the south shore beaches of Long Island, including about eight sites on Fire Island. The plant was believed extirpated from New York until 1990, when 13 populations were rediscovered. It is thought that these plants either developed from seedbanks uncovered from a hurricane or were carried northward in ocean currents from the surviving populations in the Carolinas. The plant also occurred historically at several beach sites in New Jersey, but has apparently been extirpated from the state.
Seabeach amaranth is an annual, fugitive plant species that is out competed in stable environments, such as stabilized dunes, but persists in newly disturbed habitats by virtue of its high dispersal and colonization ability. It appears to need for its survival extensive areas of barrier islands, beaches, and inlets functioning in a relatively natural and dynamic manner, allowing the plant to move about the landscape and occupy suitable beach habitat as it becomes available. The plant grows in the backshore portion of the beach between mean high water and the dunes that is often associated with saltwort (Salsola kali), sea rocket (Cakile edentula), and the regionally rare seabeach knotweed (Polygonum glaucum). These plants depend on an unflooded upper beach during the growing season. Preferred beach habitats include overwash flats at accreting ends of islands, lower foredunes, and upper strands of non-eroding beaches. Seabeach amaranth seeds are dispersed by wind and water. Germination takes place from April to July, flowering occurs from July through the fall, and seed production starts in the summer, peaks in September, and continues until the death of the plant in the fall.
Threats to the species include both beach erosion and, conversely, attempts to control erosion. Seabeach amaranth does not occur in areas where the shoreline has been hardened and stabilized, and may avoid areas with artificial dunes. (In North Carolina, seabeach amaranth and seabeach knotweed are absent from a stretch of beach with a constructed continuous barrier dune.) Other threats to the plant include recreational use of the beach, especially by off-road vehicles, predation by webworms, and flooding during the growing season. Because this species is an annual plant dependent on a very dynamic habitat, there is a great deal of year-to-year variability of occurrence. It is important to maintain appropriate habitat, even if plants are not found in a particular year. Reformulation of the barrier beaches along the Long Island coast, including beach nourishment, must be done in a way that avoids or minimizes impact on this species. Off-road vehicle traffic should be rerouted or excluded from sections of beach that have amaranth populations. Fencing of beaches for beach-nesting birds such as the piping plover and least tern should also include adjacent seabeach amaranth populations.
Sensitive joint-vetch (Aeschynomene virginica)
Sensitive joint-vetch was listed as threatened in May 1992 and a draft recovery plan published in 1994. Sensitive joint-vetch occurs from southern New Jersey south to North Carolina. There is only one extant population in the New York Bight watershed, in the Mullica River drainage; a second population occurs in southern New Jersey in the Maurice River drainage in the Delaware River watershed. This plant is a member of the legume family (Fabaceae), and occurs on bare to sparsely vegetated substrates at the upper limit of tidal influence in freshwater to brackish intertidal communities. In North Carolina, sensitive joint-vetch generally remains at a particular site for only a short period of time and maintains itself by dispersing and colonizing new, relatively disturbed, habitats where it may compete successfully among other early-successional species. The major threat to this species is habitat destruction and alteration due to dredging, filling, bank stabilization, and other shoreline activities. Other threats include sedimentation, competition from exotic or invasive species, recreational activities, and pollution from agricultural, residential, and commercial development. Protection of the New Jersey populations is critical to maintaining the northern end of this species' range. It is important to protect not only the extant sites, but also other appropriate freshwater and brackish tidal habitats within the watershed as potential habitat for future colonization by this species.
Northern monkshood (Aconitum noveboracense)
Northern monkshood was listed as threatened in April 1978 and a recovery plan completed in 1983. A member of the crowfoot or buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), northern monkshood occurs rangewide at about 20 known sites in only three discrete areas in four states (Ohio, New York, Iowa, and Wisconsin). Its preferred habitat is cold streambeds, mossy banks, cliffs, talus slopes, and cold woods. In most of the habitats occupied by northern monkshood throughout its range, there is cold air drainage or cold water flow nearby. The seeds of the monkshood are likely disseminated by water within the tributary watersheds. It is known from only one location in the New York Bight watershed, in a gorge in the Catskills. This site is threatened by hikers and roadside activity. Any further development of reservoirs within the tributary watersheds that contain monkshood could limit the seed dispersal ability of the remaining population. Use of herbicides or de-icing agents near monkshood populations would threaten the remaining populations. A large population of monkshood also occurs in the Delaware drainage of the Catskills; it, like the New York Bight watershed site, occurs primarily on private land. Protection of the remaining populations is critical, and reintroductions may be necessary to lessen the vulnerability of this species.
Sandplain gerardia (Agalinis acuta)
Sandplain gerardia was listed as endangered in September 1988, and a recovery plan was completed in 1989 by Region 5 of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This species is found at only a few locations on the Coastal Plain from Cape Cod to Maryland. Six of the 12 known extant sites occur on Long Island, including Montauk Point, and in the remnant Hempstead Plains community. Sandplain gerardia is a member of the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae) and occurs on dry, sandy, nutrient-poor soils of sparsely vegetated sandplain environments and serpentine barrens. The harshness of these habitats may eliminate potentially competitive species. Typically, this species occurs in association with sandplain grasslands dominated by little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), Virginia broomgrass (Andropogon virginicus), or Indian grass (Sorghastrum nutans). The major threat to this species is the direct destruction and degradation of its regionally restricted habitat. Protection and management of existing habitat is key to the recovery of this species, as is establishing secure metapopulations through reintroduction in appropriate habitat at historical sites. Habitat protection and management at Montauk Point and other Long Island sites is critical to the survival and recovery of this species. Habitat disturbance, whether through fire, grazing, soil scarification, or other cause, may play a key role in the species life history. The effects of habitat manipulation, including mowing, scarification, and fire, should continue to be investigated, and appropriate management actions implemented.
American chaffseed (Schwalbea americana)
American chaffseed was listed as endangered in September 1992, and a draft recovery plan was produced in 1995. American chaffseed once occurred in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain from Cape Cod south to Louisiana and at inland sites in New York, Kentucky, and Tennessee; it is now restricted to 72 known occurrences in New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. In the New York Bight watershed, American chaffseed formerly occurred at several locations in the New Jersey Pinelands (14 known historical occurrences), but appears to have been extirpated from these sites. One known extant site occurs in the Delaware Bay drainage of the New Jersey Pinelands in Lebanon State Forest. This represents the northermost known occurrence of the plant, and the only known occurrence north of North Carolina. American chaffseed also historically occurred in the Albany Pine Bush, but has been extirpated from that site and New York State. This plant is a member of the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae), and grows in open pine woods, savannas, and other open areas, in moist to dry acidic sandy loams or sandy peat loams. The threats to the species are mainly development of its habitat, fire suppression, and concomitant vegetational succession. At present, the New Jersey site is maintained in early successional stages by mowing. The recovery goal is 50 geographically distinct, self-sustaining populations with at least four sites in the northern part of the range. A northern stronghold for this species should be reestablished and maintained by fire in the New Jersey Pinelands and on Long Island.
In addition to federally listed species, this project also gave equal consideration to state-listed species whose status within the New York Bight watershed was considered endangered, threatened, vulnerable, or declining. Most species that are federally listed as endangered or threatened are also listed or are likely to be listed by the states where they occur. All New Jersey or New York state-listed endangered or threatened species occurring in the New York Bight watershed are included on the lists of species of special emphasis (Appendix I) and were factored into the determination of significant habitat areas. In New Jersey, there are 129 state-listed endangered plant and animal species and 18 state-listed threatened species that occur within the New York Bight watershed. In New York, there are 70 state-listed endangered plants and animals, 61 state-listed threatened species, 28 special concern animal species, and 96 rare plant species within the Bight watershed. These species are too numerous to be discussed here individually, but are discussed, wherever appropriate, in the individual habitat complex site narratives.
Although some of these state-listed species are globally rare, many are more common elsewhere in their ranges, especially towards the centers of their distribution. These latter species at the edge of their ranges are often the reason for the status of a species in one state being quite different from its status in another state, or within the watershed. For example, several northern boreal species that are common in northern New York reach their southern limits in New Jersey because of climatic barriers and, thus, are quite rare in that state. Conversely, several southern, coastal plain species that are common in New Jersey reach their northern limits in New York and are uncommon or rare there. This pattern of range-limited species accounts for those species listed as endangered in one state, not listed at all in the other state, and assigned yet another status within the watershed. Populations of rare plants and animals at the edges of their ranges are subject to sets of environmental conditions different from populations of the same species at the centers of their ranges, and often develop genetic differences that allow them to cope with these dissimilar conditions. Peripheral populations may therefore act as important reserves of genetic diversity for the species as a whole and should be protected, especially within an ecosystem context. These peripheral populations are also important indicators of natural and anthropogenic processes taking place in ecosystems. In addition to their state and global status, the regional status and distribution of these state-listed species in the New York Bight watershed were estimated and Bight watershed ranks assigned; these ranks are included in the list of species of special emphasis.
Both the states of New York and New Jersey have enacted laws and regulations to protect and foster the conservation of rare and endangered species within their political boundaries. The extent to which state-listed species can be legally protected varies, not only between the two states but among groups of organisms as well, with greatest protection afforded to vertebrate species on state lands and lesser protection for plants on private property. Nonetheless, there are a number of other state and local land-use and zoning laws giving endangered species various additional degrees of protection, including consideration of actions that may destroy habitats or "take" species. Listed below are some of the more significant state laws that protect endangered species; there are many other state and local regulations that can be called upon to protect such species or require consideration in impact assessments. State endangered species programs and local zoning commissions should be contacted directly when questions arise about potential threats to endangered species or their habitats.
New Jersey animal species are listed and protected under the Endangered and Nongame Species Conservation Acts of 1973. The most recent list of Special Animals of New Jersey that was consulted for this report was November, 1995; the state legal status codes for animals in this report reflect the most recent legal list from June, 1991. New Jersey plant species are listed under the Endangered Plant Species List Act of 1989. The most recent list of Special Plants of New Jersey consulted for this report was July, 1995; the state legal status codes of plants reflect the most recent revision of January, 1995.
New York animal species are listed and protected under Environmental Conservation Law section 11-0535. The most recent list of animal species consulted for this report was February, 1996; the state legal status codes for animals reflect the most recent legal list from August, 1987 (an update of this list was under consideration by the state legislature as of the printing of this report, and the proposed changes are indicated in parentheses on the species lists in this report). New York plant species are listed and protected under Environmental Conservation Law section 9-1503. The most recent New York Rare Plant Status list consulted for this report was July, 1996; the state legal status codes of plants reflect the most recent revision of March, 1990.
These state endangered species laws generally prohibit the taking, importation, transportation, possession, or sale of any listed animal species. Listed plants in New York may not be removed or damaged without the consent of the landowner. Both of these acts, however, do not directly protect the habitat of these species, although other state and local environmental legislation requires the consideration of listed species and habitat in environmental analysis and reviews. For example, in New Jersey the Natural Areas Act provides that certain areas of state lands can be specifically managed for preservation of endangered species and unique or representative natural communities, and the Pinelands Preservation Act prohibits development in the Pinelands that would adversely impact endangered and threatened species. The Coastal Areas Facilities Review Act requires that endangered and threatened species habitat not be adversely impacted by regulated projects, and the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act considers wetlands containing endangered and threatened animal species to be exceptional resource value wetlands. In New York, the Waterfront Revitalization and Coastal Resources Act prohibits state and federal actions that destroy or significantly impair a designated significant coastal fish and wildlife habitat, while the Tidal and Freshwater Wetlands Acts require that wildlife habitat not be adversely affected by approved projects. The State Environmental Quality Review Act requires that environmental impact statements be prepared for any actions that may have a significant effect on the environment.
Questions about the state endangered species laws and the current status of plant and animal species in the state should be directed to the appropriate offices of the Department of Environmental Protection in New Jersey and the Department of Environmental Conservation in New York. Contacts for these offices, including internet addresses for up-to-date species lists, are provided in Appendix III.
References:
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